Pharmacist Blog about what I encounter and find useful/interesting

Mystical alternative view over Ljubljana, Slovenia; on a hill part of Golovec overlooking the city's south part

One of the most easy exercises in chemistry is calculating concentrations of solutions. However, for a lot of starting students or people new in the field, it remains a hassle to carry out such exercise. Let's say we want to prepare a 0,250 M aqueous solution of calcium chloride (CaCl2). CaCl2 is a white powder at room temperature. It dissolves readily in water. The exercise is as follows: What mass of CaCl2 is required to prepare a 300,0 mL of a 0,250 M solution? (Molecular mass of CaCl2 = 110,98 g/mol) Approach this step by step. First, deduct what is expected. 1. We need to calculate the amount of mass needed. Mass is in gram (g). The solution has a concentration of 0,250 M. This means we want a concentration of 0,250 Molar or = mol/liter. 2. 0,250 mol/liter. But we do not want 1 liter, we want 300 milliliter, or 0,3 liter. Calculate the amount of mol we need: 0,250 mol/liter to 300 milliter, I calculate it as follows: 0,250 mol divide by 1000 (1 liter = 1000 mil...

In 2017 I spent 3 months in Slovenia for a thesis exchange. One of the most beautiful sites I visited is the Logar Valley, or as they call it in Slovenija: Logarska Dolina. One of the downsides is that it's hard to reach when you stay in Ljubljana. I suggest to rent a car or go there by bus and spend the night in the national park (which I hope to do someday). A typical scenery picture I took:

Do you ever need a medication when in a foreign country, but in this country the medication you need is not available under a certain name? It's useful to know the active compound of the medication! In this case, I will present to you a list of brand names which contain paracetamol (= acetaminophen) throughout the world. When you are in the local pharmacy, ask about the active compound ("paracetamol" or "acetaminophen") and they will know immediately what you mean! If you talk about a brand from your own country it can take a while until the pharmacist knows what you mean. Useful : in almost all countries, generic brands are available, usually under the name of the active compound, so just ask for "paracetamol" or "acetaminophen" if you would like the cheapest product. Paracetamol = Acetaminophen EUROPE Austria: Ben-u-ron, Mexalen Belgium: Algostase, Dafalgan Croatia: Daleron, Lekadol, Plicet Czech Republic/Czechia: Paralen ...

Spiriva Handihaler® consists of the anticholinergic drug tiotropiumbromide. This medicin is used in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, most often abbreviated as COPD. Pharmacology : tiotropiumbromide is a long-acting anticholinergic drug. It blocks the muscarin receptor. This way, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine will not be able to bind on this receptor. The result is a relaxation of the bronchialic muscle tissue. Always use this medication as your doctor/pharmacist advises you. The most commonly used therapy is the inhalation of one capsule a day, on the same hour each day. How to use the Handihaler : Step 1 : It may sound logical, but open the cap and the mouth piece. Step 2 : Gently take a Spiriva capsule. Place it in the open space. Close it off with the mouth piece until you hear a soft click. Press the green button FULLY on the side only once. By pressing this button, the capsule will be "pierced", creating small openings in the cap...

Example of a hydrolysis reaction from carboxylate to carboxylic acid, drawn by myself. The reaction shown is an example of a common hydrolysis reaction used in organic chemistry.  The ester compound on the left (carboxylate moiety), is usually dissolved in 1,4-dioxane. Then, NaOH aqueous solution is added. Conditions are dependent of the type of compound.  Several conditions can be used: - 80 °C, 2 M NaOH, if compound is extremely stable, these are harsh conditions. - 80 °C, 1 M NaOH  - 60 °C, 2 M NaOH  - Room temperature (RT), 2 M NaOH  - RT, 1 M NaOH If the compound is susceptible to degradation or is unstable, use room temperature and a low molarity of NaOH. It all depends on the compound of course, and often knowledge is obtained by trial and error. It is advised to start with the least harsh conditions. When hydrolysis is complete, isolation of the final compound is done by evaporating the solvent (1,4-dioxane), acidify with HCl or an ion ...

Illustration of a small column (column chromatography) Two pictures are shown of column chromatography. The first one showing the column, using mobile phase dichloromethane. Below the collected samples. Samples were collected in penicillin flasks. Every 10 samples, thin layer-chromatography (TLC) was done to monitor the column, and see which samples contained to desired isolated compound. The chosen column was small, since the sample size was also relatively small.

Anti-dandruff  Dandruff What is dandruff? Also called "roos" in dutch, are dead skin cells of the scalp, which are formed by a pathological process, caused by an acceleration of keratinization (also known as hyperkeratosis). These dead cells will stick to eachother, together with tallow these compounds of cells will form to the dandruff as we know it. In some cases, due to the tallow, these 'flakes' can look yellowy, vivacious. Most common cause is just a dry skin type, and by a yeast, living on the human skin, named Pityrosporum ovale (now known as  Malassezia globosa ). The exact mechanism how the yeast produces more dandruff is not fully known, but probably it's caused by a metabolisation of triglycerides into oleic acid. Fact is, reduce the yeast in population and dandruff will reduce significantly. N.B.: it has been proven that the colonization of the yeast is almost the double of normal population on people with more dandruff than other people. ...

Silverfingers  A week ago, we were working in the laboratory with bromhexine hydrochloride. Identification test on chlorides was performed according to the European Pharmacopoeia. This test includes the use of silver nitrate (AgNO3). Silver nitrate will form a white precipitation with chlorides if chlorides are present in the molecule (here: under the form of hydrochloride, HCl). AgNO3 + Cl- ---> AgCl  ↓  As a side note: the test is then proceeded washing the precipitation with water, and then adding ammonia. Ammonia will dissolve AgCl. Luckily for us, the test was positive. But, after the laboratory was finished, the next day I noticed grey / black small stains on my fingers. In the theory lessons, we've always seen that silver ions oxidize very easily forming a black/grey precipitation, metallic silver. Thus working with silver ions should be done in absence of light, which could catalyze the oxidation reaction. Ag+ --> Ag ↓ What happened was ...

These are the last pictures. Part 1:  HERE Part 2:  HERE Part 3:  HERE

Part 1:  HERE Part 2:  HERE

Part 2 of the series, looking at a meadowsweet powder under the microscope. Part 1:  HERE

We acquired some meadowsweet powder and put it under a microscope, following the standard procedure of the European Pharmacopeia (using some droplets of a chloralhydrate solution (80 g in 20 mL)), heating followed by cooling, to minimize the crystallization process of chloralhydrate. Namely a phase contrast microscope.  What we saw was a lot of irrecognisable structures, cells, celldebris, trichoma's (hairs), stoma, ..., but fascinating nonetheless.

Structure of meprobamate (source: Wikipedia) Meprobamate is an amide derived from carbamic acid. More specifically, from a dicarbamate of a diol in this case. Carbamic acid: NH2COOH. It does not exist on its own, it automatically splits into NH3 and CO2. The two clear amide bonds are indicated with the red circles. Full name of meprobamate is: 2-methyl-2-propyl-1,3-propanediolcarbamate. Properties It is a white crystalic powder or forms colourless crystals. It tastes quite bitter, acrid even. It is sparingly soluble in water at a temperature of 25 °C, a little but more soluble at a higher temperature of 50 °C and it's good soluble in alcohol. How to identify meprobamate - Specific melting point of 104-108 °C - Can look at the IR (infrared) spectrum - Adding acetic acid anhydride and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) will form a precipitate with a very characteristic melting point of 124-128 °C = N,N-diacetylderivate is formed out of the acid reaction. - Adding an alcoholi...

Structure of Benzalkonium chloride, source: Wikipedia Properties White to white-yellow powder or gelatinous yellowwhite fragments, the compound is hygroscopic, which means it easily attracts water (from f.e. the air). When the compound gets heated, it will form a clear molten mass. It is soluble in water and alcohol. When it is resolved in water, the H2O solution will form excessive foam. How to identify the compound It - UV spectrophotometry: maxima at 257 nm, 263 nm and 269 nm. - Using liquid chromatography - Adding Na-tetraphenylborate and acetic acid will form a sediment of benzalkoniumtetraphenylborate. Which has a characteristic melting point of 127-133 °C. - Bringing the compound in a NaOH solution together with BFB (bromephenol blue) and dimethylchloride will form a blue colour in the CH2Cl2 layer. This is caused by the ionpair forming with the anionic pigment (BFB) and extraction of the ionpair in the organic layer. - Identification of Cl- ions: + AgNO3 will f...

Meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria Filipendula ulmaria in nature General info: NL: Moerasspirea Ger.: Mädesüss FR: Reine-des-prés Family: Rosaceae ("the rose family") Most common distribution: Northern Europe, Northern America and northern Asia. Parts of the plant used for medicinal use: Flos (flowers), herba (herbs). The traditional use of this plant is: - Diaphoretic - Diuretic - Anti-gout - Anti-rheumatism - Anti Bladder and kidney inflammation - Anti ulcerations in the stomach - Anti burning stomachacid - Anti diarrhea Often prescribed by professionals against a cold. Chemical components of the plant: - Flavonoids - Tannins (up to 12,5% of the total of all components) - Etheric oil (mainly salicylcomponents, primarily salicylaldehyde together with gaultherin, methylsalicylate, salicin, spirein, etc.) The main effects of the plant are caused by these salicylates. In the body, these salicylates inhibit the COX enzymes. (COX1 and COX2) C...

Definition: EPO: = erythropoietin   A glycoprotein hormon-like structure, a sialoglycoprotein, which is an important factor in the survival, growth and proliferation of erythroid precursor cells (EPC) and it improves the de novo creation, differentation and growth of red blood cells (RBC). Thus, EPO controls the erythropoiesis = production of RBC. EPC: these are cells that are located in the bone marrow, will eventually form the RBC. RBC: cells responsible for the transport and distribution of oxygen throughout the body. Structure: Built out of 165 aminoacids (AA). They are all connected and form 1 polypeptide chain.  Although, within the chain, there are 2 disulfide bonds.  Respectively on positions: Cys7-161 and Cys29-33  Cys = cystein and the numbers indicate the positions these AA are located. Cystein structure. Available  sulfide  group for bonding There are also 4 positions where there is a possibility for glycosylation  Namel...

Very basic explanation of a virus: Virus consists of a  - Head - Tail - Legs/Fibres The head contains the DNA/RNA, nucleic acids (genetic material, GM). It depends on what kind of virus we speak of, there are a lot of different kind of viruses. It is protected from the outside with a protein coat, that consists of hemagglutinin and neuraminidases, hence names given for viruses (f.e. H1N1, Influenza virus). The tail connects the head with the legs/fibres. Those legs will make sure the virus can bind on its host, for example a bacterial cell or a human cell. Viruses that bind on bacteria are often called bacteriophages. When connected to a host, the virus will inject its DNA/RNA into the cell via the tail. Once its GM is injected, the virus will normally eject from the cell and fall apart/gets secreted out of the organism. The GM will be implemented into the hosts genome often via reverse transciptases. Now this GM will code for proteins that induce transcription of th...

Behold, a picture taken through a lightmicroscope of two bacteria tribes, cultivated on a petri dish; it was simply taken with the camera of my phone. Shown are two tribes of bacteria, and they can be visualized using the Gram staining.  For the theory behind it and the protocol I'd like to reference to  HERE . Basically on my picture: Red rod-shaped bacteria are bacilli: these are Gram NEGATIVE. Purple spherical bacteria are cocci: these are Gram POSITIVE. You can further visualize the bacteria in terms of how they group up, with how many they group up, their specific form, do they attach to eachother, etc. and thus determine using references and literature what species they are from and what type of bacteria they are.

"Coca-Cola Life" Recently the Coca-Cola company released a new beverage: the Coca-Cola Life drink. It should contain less sugar than the normal Coca-Cola drink; a part of the sugar is replaced with the recently approved sweetener from the Stevia plant (stevioglycosides). It's being sold as a 'natural' drink, but those stevioglycosides are as natural as the chemical sweetener aspartame found in Light and Zero drinks. However it is true that the amount of sugar is much lower (being reported as 33%, some say it's around 20%); yet approximately still 3-4 sugar cubes / 33 cl can (5-6 in a normal can). I bought it myself and found that the flavor has not really changed from the original Coca-Cola, however it does taste more "flat" - but definitely true it yourself. The outside of the can has the colour green. I personally do not associate this "healthy - natural" colour with Coca-Cola, but it's growing on me. In sum...